Impact of school funding on student achievement Essay

Impact of school funding on student achievement - Essay Example In fact, more than $66 billion is said to have been invested in school technology (QED, 2004). This unprecedented level of investment in educational technology has raised expectations of legislators and the public who have been looking for returns on this investment (Benton, 2002; CEO Forum, 1999, 2000), and therefore are calling for evidence regarding the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of technology especially in K-12 schools (Ringstaff & Kelley, 2002; Panel on Educational Technology, 1997; Melmed, 1995). No child left behind (NCLB) requires states to demonstrate that "every student is technologically literate by the time the student finishes the eighth grade, regardless of the student's race, ethnicity, gender, family income, geographic location, or disability" (U.S. Department of Education, 2001). While NCLB has established an eighth-grade technology literacy requirement, the requirement is not a full statement of knowledge and skills students need nor does it include a mechanism for ensuring accountability (Kay & Honey, in press). Educational funding has been found to be associated with student achievement (Lance (2001), Miller (2002), Siminitus (2002), and Whitington (2002). Generally, that would mean more funding may be able to enhance student achievement. The RAND study findings (Grissmer, et al. 2000) found that when other characteristics, like socio-economic status and family background, are equal, NAEP test scores are higher in states that have: 1) higher per-pupil expenditures, 2) lower pupil-teacher ratio in lower grades, 3) higher percentage of teachers who feel they have adequate resources for teaching, 4) more children in public pre-kindergarten programs, and 5) lower teacher turnover. In the Burke County, North Carolina Research (Pritchard 2000), the Burke County schools in 1995-96 reduced class sizes in first- and second-grade to 15 students per teacher. The study found: 1) increased achievement in both reading and math, and 2) More teacher time devoted to instruction due to fewer discipline problems. The Ohio Education Association in a member survey stated that new educational policies have done more harm than good, while Ohio political leaders have continued to neglect severe funding problems of Ohio public schools (Ohio Education News). The highlights of the 4000 Member Survey include - Only 5% of respondents feel Ohio's school funding system gives every school district equal resources for a quality education for all students. Eighty-seven percent indicated Ohio's system of funding education is fundamentally flawed. Two-thirds feel that their school districts are under-funded, and 93% feel that Ohio schools overall are under-funded. Eighty-nine percent feel the state legislature has failed to solve the state's education funding crisis. Between 85% and 95% of those surveyed feel initiatives like No Child Left Behind, tuition vouchers, and some aspects of high-stakes testing have done more harm than good. Two of other popular researches include the Tennessee STAR Project (Prichard 2000a) which tested the effect of class size on student achievement, where smaller classes outperformed regular classes, and HEROS (Health and Education Research Operative Services) Research (Prichard

Clinton’s Captivating DNC Speech Essay Example for Free

Clinton’s Captivating DNC Speech Essay On September 5th 2012, former president Bill Clinton stepped on stage to address citizens at the Democratic National Convention and countless other Americans watching from home. Clinton’s speech took place prior to the Republican National Convention, and responds to many of the misleading claims that were made there. Clinton’s clear goal and objective is to inform and educate the American voters as to why he believes Barak Obama should be re-elected as opposed to Governor Romney. In doing this he not only gives the facts, but cements his ethos by referencing his own presidency and letting his record speak for itself on issues such as; jobs, the economy, healthcare, and even the constant bickering between parties. Clinton instantly dives in by pointing out the major flaw in politics: the fighting between parties. â€Å"Through my foundation, in America and around the world, I work with Democrats, Republicans and Independents who are focused on solving problems and seizing opportunities, not fighting with each other.† (Clinton 1) â€Å"Though I often disagree with Republicans, I never learned to hate them the way the far right that now controls their party seems to hate President Obama and the Democrats.† (Clinton 2) What Clinton does in this passage is put the constant fighting between parties in perspective. He has worked with Republicans before and after his presidency and gives credibility to the idea the compromising is possible. I think that in talking about how his foundation’s focus is â€Å"on solving problems and seizing opportunities, his is connecting to the everyday, average American who is tired of corruption and lack work being done by both sides. To further this argument he throws out a quote made by Reagan and even gets an applause for Bush by stating, â€Å"I worked with President George Hw.W. Bush on national education goals and am grateful to President George W. Bush for his efforts and work with PEPFAR† which is an organization that saves millions of lives in poor countries.† (Clinton 2) By referencing his republican predecessors he not only shows goodwill, but that he and other Democrats are willing to do something the Republicans aren’t; compromise. Before even speaking a word I held this man to great admiration and respect. The opinions that I already had of Clinton were based on the fact that I was a 90’s baby and grew up during his presidency. The economy was booming and both my parents had steady, good paying jobs like many other American’s. Its these economic times that produced four surplus budgets to which the former president references by saying, â€Å"People ask me all the time how we delivered four surplus budgets. What new ideas did we bring? I always give a one work answer: arithmetic.† (Clinton 6) This leads to the thought that it could happen again if only republicans would do the math. This insinuation also invokes many questions regarding the republican’s validity. Can their word be held truthful? In today’s politics it’s getting harder to tell. Taking this into account, Clinton does an excellent job as painting himself as the â€Å"truth teller†, and uses hints of logos to even further his ethos by using data and statistics. Clinton’s strongest and most powerful moment comes when he delivers a moment of silence to get people to listen and to signify that something important was about to be said, and there was. â€Å"I experienced the same thing in 1994 and early 1995. Our policies were working and the economy was growing but most people didn’t feel it yet. By 1996, the economy was roaring, halfway through the longest peacetime expansion in American history. President Obama started with a much weaker economy then I did when I came into office. No president- no me or any of my predecessors could have repaired all the damage in just four years. But conditions are improving and if you’ll renew the president’s contract you will feel it.† (Clinton 3) I believe that this statement alone helps persuade people in favor of Obama and gives really great insight to voters of the severity of the job he inherited due to the short comings of The Bush administration and republican policy. Clinton faced the difficult task of going before the American people and addressing one by one all the claims made against Barak Obama at the Republican National Convention. To wind down his speech he uses the typical presidential line â€Å"my fellow Americans you have to decide what kind of country you want to live in. If you want a you’re on your own, winner take all society you should support the Republican ticket. If you want a country of shared opportunities and shared responsibilities- a â€Å"we’re all in it together† society, you should vote for Barak Obama and Joe Biden.† (Clinton 6) He uses the term â€Å" my fellow Americans† to place himself as one of the people and not above them. This shows one of the many reasons why he is so relatable to the average person. There is no doubt that the role of president is the most powerful position that one person can hold, but with that title comes a great amount of responsibility and at times a certain kind of loneliness that nobody could possibly understand. In saying this I don’t think there could have been anyone better to argue Obama’s case then someone who has held the position and someone who is probably the most popular president of our time. While many may still be on the fence on who they should vote for, but my opinion is that if he is good enough for Bill Clinton then he is good enough for me. Clinton, Bill. â€Å"Democratic Nation Convention Speech†, ABC News: ABC news corp., September 5, 2012. Web.

Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome: Physiology and Features

Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome: Physiology and Features Discuss the inheritance, molecular and biochemical defects underlying the clinical features associated with Lesch-Nyhan syndrome. The Lesch-Nyhan syndrome is a rare heritable disorder of inborn error metabolism of purine which was examined in 1964 by Lesch and Nyhan. They investigated the two brothers with hyperuricemia and neurobehavioral problems and suggested that this disorder involves motor impairment and self-injurious behaviors (Lesch, M and Nyhan, W. L., 1964). The popularity of Lesch-Nyhan syndrome is about 1 in 380000 individuals and this disorder presents solely in male. (Seegmiller, J. E., et al, 1967). It is passed on since the X-linked recessive trait causes genetic mutation followed by the exertion of an enzyme called hypoxanthine guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HGPRT). In the metabolic condition, Lesch-Nyhan syndrome is recognized by purine overproduction (Nyhan, W. L, et al, 1967) which contributes to increased level of uric acid significantly. The clinical features associate with Lesch-Nyhan syndrome are briefly outlined and the inheritance, molecular and biochemical defects underlying the clinical features are also discussed. Figure 1. The clinical features associated with Lesch-Nyhan syndrome. This disorder leads to neurobehavioral syndrome involving motor dysfunction, cognitive impairment and self-injurious behaviors (Mumues, 2015).    The clinical characteristics of Lesch-Nyhan syndrome are defined by motor defection leading to neurological operation, cognitive and behavioral impairment, and also overproduction of uric acid or hyperuricemia (van der Zee et al., 1968). Moreover, neurological disturbance is majorly performed as hypotonia and developmental delay which are obviously expressed by three to six months. The children are interrupted in sitting and walking or require a wheelchair in severe condition. Additionally, the twitch of facial muscles and limbs can be observed in elder children. During the first ages, the extrapyramidal difficulties such as dystonia and choreoathetosis or the pyramidal difficulties like spasticity and hyperreflexia become noticeable (Jinnah and Friedmann, 2001). Furthermore, cognitive dysfunction and behavioral impairment occurring between two to three years old can lead to moderate or serious mental hindrance. Also, the continuous self-injurious behaviors such as biting the fingers or lips and hitting the head or limbs are the most distinctive behavioral symptom in patients (Nyhan, W. L, et al, 1968). Lesch-Nyhan syndrome is also characterized by overproduction of uric acid and this induces the decomposition of uric acid crystals in kidneys, ureters or bladder and the gouty arthritis can be developed later in the disorder (Page et al, 1987). Figure 2. The inheritance detects of Lesch- Nyhan syndrome. This X-linked recessive syndrome is solely for the male and the chance taken from the sons and daughters with either affected father and unaffected mother or unaffected father and carrier mother are showed (IFFA, 2016). Firstly, the Lesch- Nyhan syndrome is inherited in an X-linked recessive characteristic since the mutation of HPRT gene is positioned on the X chromosome and this disorder is described to the male only (Hoefnagel et al, 1965). More importantly, the X-linked inheritance determined that the X-linked character cannot be transferred from the father to the son. In this syndrome, the Lyon hypothesis can be adopted to demonstrate the mothers are heterozygous and the mosaics involve two cell cultures where one is entirely normal and another one is fully faulty (Migeon et al, 1968) . An investigation is examined that the fibroblasts developing in the cell populations from the skin were duplicated (Migeon, B. R, et al, 1968) and HGPRT deficiency in the negative duplication can be observed through radioautographical method. Furthermore, the halt of the X chromosome is not described as a random activity because HGPRT in the erythrocytes or leukocytes of obliged heterozygotes for this situation i s distinct with the glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency where the transportation of enzyme in heterozygotes is around 50%. It is indicated that the enzyme action in the erythrocytes of the mothers with Lesch-Nyhan syndrome are normal. Also, the blood-relative family in two kinds of G6PD and HGPRT (Nyhan, W. L.et al, 1970) are separating so this shows that females were heterozygous to G6PD. The reason why the males have more frequent chance to suffer from this X linked recessive syndrome than the females is because the males contain only one X chromosome and one changed copy of the gene is enough to lead to this syndrome and it is uncommon that females possess two changed copies of the gene Vogel (1977). It is examined that the father of a male patient is not the carrier of the mutated gene and also do not suffer from the syndrome. The chance taken from the siblings rely upon the carrier condition of the mother. Carrier women contain a 50% chance of passing on the HPRT1 variation in each gestation. The sons who receive that variation will be influenced and the daughters who obtain the variation are served as carriers. Hence, it can be concluded that a carrier mother has a one-fourth chance of getting an affected son, one-fourth chance of getting a carrier daughter and half chance of getting a normal son or daughter (Genetic Home Reference, 2007). Figure 3. Purine metabolism with de novo synthesis and salvage synthesis. The de novo purine synthesis is mobilized by the enzyme, PRPP amidotransferase, and the salvage pathway by hypoxanthine phosphorybosyltransferase (HPRT) and adenine phosphorybosyltransferase (APRT). HPRT catalyzes the salvage synthesis of inosine monophosphate, IMP, and guanosine monophosphate, GMP, from hypoxanthine and guanine particularly by using PRPP as a co-substrate. The HPRT deficiency leads to decomposition of hypoxanthine and guanine which are transformed into uric acid by xanthine oxidase. Purine overproduction, increase level of PRPP and decrease level of IMP and GMP are the results (Torres R J and Puig J G, 2007). Secondly, Lesch-Nyhan syndrome contributes to the molecular defects due to the mutation of HPRT1 gene which encrypts hypoxanthine phosphoribosyltransferase. This enzyme is used to recycle purines and is responsible for transferring hypoxanthine and guanine back into DNA synthesis which establish the cells to possess enough supply of building blocks and assemble DNA and RNA (Sweetman, L and Nyhan, W. L. 1972). The deficiency of HPRT map to chromosome Xq26-q27.2 and is likely to cause heterogenous mutations (Greene, M. L, et al, 1970). Also, it induces the increased level of purine nucleotides by purine salvage pathway. It leads to decomposition of uric acid because of the broken down but unrecycled purines and occurrence of excessive PRPP, resulting in the neurological and behavioral problems of Lesch-Nyhan syndrome (Kelley, W. N, 1968). The de novo pathway is initiated with the active form of ribose from ribose-5-phosphate to 5-phosphoribosyl-1-pyrophosphate (PRPP) and this synthesis discharges AMP. PRPP gives rise to the first nucleotide called inosine monophosphate (IMP) by an enzyme PRPP amidotransferase which serves as the rate-limiting step. Besides, IMP uses as a forerunner of AMP and GMP synthesis and the route of pathway is modulated by the higher level of particular nucleotide (Fox, I. H and Kelley, W. N, 1971). There are two main transferase enzymes involving in the purines salvage pathway. HPRT is responsible for catalyzing the hypoxanthine to inosine monophosphate (IMP) and guanine to guanosine monophosphate (GMP) and another one is adenosine phosphoribosyltransferase (APRT) which assembles adenine to AMP through transferring the 5-phosphoribosyl group from 5-phosphoribosyl 1-pyrophosphate (PRPP) (Keebaugh et al., 2007). The AMP, GMP, IMP are all catabolized to uric acid and particular mononucleotides is started with the transformation to the phosphate free nucleoside via cytosolic 5-nucleotidases. After that, the nitrogen is eliminated from adenosine to produce inosine with an enzyme, adenosine deaminase (ADA). The ribose is discarded from the nucleotides by purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP) and create hypoxanthine, xanthine and guanine (Rubin, C. S.et al, 1969). The nitrogen is then eliminated from guanine through guanine deaminase and xanthine is produced. Eventually, hypoxanthine and xanthine are converted to the final product of purine catabolism called uric acid by xanthine oxidase (Kelley, W. N, et al, 1970). It can be concluded that HGPRT deficiency leads to higher level of PRPP because of its rate limiting function and decreased level of GMP and IMP, resulting in increased de novo purine synthesis and degradation of purines to contribute to the higher level of uric acid called hyperuricemia and cause Lesch-Nyhan syndrome (Rosenbloom, F. M, et al, 1968). Thirdly, the biochemical defects can be determined by the purine metabolism of the Lesch-Nyhan syndrome and the metabolism can indicate the rate of uric acid synthesizing from 14C-labeled glycine (Sweetman, L. 1968). Also, the deficiency of HPRT contributes to the excessive purine synthesis and this enzyme acts as a regulating role in purine metabolism. The specific activity of the uric acid can be examined by the isolation and purification from urine. In the children with Lesch-Nyhan syndrome it is observed that accelerated specific activity in the uric acid obtain 20 times higher glycine concentration salvaged in uric acid than the control individuals (Nyhan, W. L.et al, 1968). Thus, it leads to the higher level of purine overproduction in patients. Besides, the rate of de novo synthesis of purine using fibroblasts grown in cell culture can be demonstrated (Seegmiller, J. E., et al, 1967). There is a significant relationship between asperity of disorder and recycle of hypoxanthine or guanine. The expressions of intracellular purines are normal within the fibroblasts with deficient HGPRT but purine depletion is apparent since the increased purine metabolites are discharged from cells. In addition, the normal purines were probable to cause a compensative increase in purine synthesis due to notable rising in purinosomes. Moreover, the purine de novo overproduction showing in this syndrome is an unsuccessful feedback regulation. The first step of the purine pathway is catalyzed by phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate amidotmnsfemse and is dependent to feedback inhibition by adenine and guanine. 2-ethylamino-l,3,4-thiadiazole was used for the examination and the observation showed that uricogenic agent significantly increases the rate of purine synthesis in normal conditions but in the patients the rates of purine synthesis increase more intensely by this agent (Nyhan, W. L.et al, 1968). Furthermore, the existence of xanthinuria in patients with inborn deficiency of xanthine oxidase expresses the abnormalities in the central nervous system. In the cerebrospinal fluid (Sweetman, L. 1968) the xanthine levels are equivalent to the controls and the hypoxanthine level in patients with the Lesch-Nyhan syndrome were greater than the controls by four times. Hence, Hypoxanthine and guanine recycling and the de novo pur ine synthesis are demonstrated to determine the biochemical abnormality of Lesch-Nyhan syndrome. In conclusion, by the discussion of the inheritance, molecular and biochemical defects that determining the clinical trait correlated with the Lesch-Nyhan syndrome, it is demonstrated that this X-linked recessive disorder is exclusive for males and is induced from the mutation of HGPRT gene which contributes to the overproduction of uric acid by purine salvage pathway and causes neurobehavioral problems of affected individuals (Rosenbloom, F. M.et al, 1968). For the future perspectives, although there is no treatment to cure this disorder, effective medications can be adopted to alleviate the symptoms such as managing the uric acid levels by allopurinol and reducing behavioral problems by taking diazepam or haloperidol appropriately (Genetics Home Reference, 2007). (Word count: 1639) References: Fox, I. H and Kelley, W. N. 1971. Ann. Intern. Med. 74:424-33  Genetics Home Reference, 2007. Lesch-Nyhan syndrome. Retrieved on 24/5/2007. Greene, M. L and Boyle, J. A, 1970. Science 167:887- 89 Hoefnagel, D, et al, 1965. Hereditary choreoathetosis, self-mutilation and hyperuricemia in young males. New Eng. J. Med. 273: 130-135, 1965. IFFA, 2016. Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome on emaze. [digital image] Retrieved from: https://www.emaze.com/@ACFTIZWL/Lesch-Nyhan-Syndrome Jinnah, H. A and Friedmann, T. 2001. Lesch-Nyhan disease and its variants.In: Scriver, C. R.; Beaudet, A. L.; Sly, W. S.; Valle, D. (eds.): The Metabolic Molecular Bases of Inherited Disease. Vol. II. (8th ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill (pub.) P. 2537. Kelley, W. N, 1968. Fed. Proc. 27: 1047-52 Keebaugh, A. C and Sullivan, R. T, 2007. NISC Comparative Sequencing Program, Thomas, J. W. Gene duplication and inactivation in the HPRT gene family. Genomics 89: 134-142. Kelley, W. N, et al, 1970. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 21 5 :512-16 Lesch, M and Nyhan, W. L, 1964. Am. J. Med. 36:561-70 Mumues, 2015. Mental retardation. [digital image] Retrieved from: https://www.slideshare.net/mumues/mental-retardation-44326087 Migeon, B. R, et al, 1968. X-linked hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyl transferase deficiency: heterozygote has two clonal populations. Science 160: 425-427. Nyhan, W. L, 1967. Pediat. 67 :257-63 Nyhan, W. L, et al, 1968. Metabolism 17 :846-53 Nyhan, W. L, et al, 1970. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 65:214-18 Page, T, et al, 1987. Syndrome of mild mental retardation, spastic gait, and skeletal malformations in a family with partial deficiency of hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase. Pediatrics 79: 713-717 Rubin, C. S, et al, 1969. J. Lab. Cfin. Med. 74:732-41 Rosenbloom, F. M, et al, 1968. Bioi. Chern. 243 : 1 166-73 Seegmiller, J. E, et al, 1967. Science 155: 1 682-84 Sweetman, L. 1968. Fed. Proc. 27 : 1 055-59 Sweetman, L and Nyhan, W. L. 1972. Arch. Intern. Med. 130:214-20 Torres R J and Puig J G, 2007. Hypoxanthaine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HPRT) deficiency: Lesch- Nyhan Syndrome. Orphanet J Rare Dis. 2, 1. [digital image] Retrieved from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesch%E2%80%93Nyhan_syndrome#/media/File:HPRT_metabolism.jpg Vogel, F, 1977. A probable sex difference in some mutation rates. (Editorial) Am. J. Hum. Genet. 29: 312-319.   Ã‚  

Uzbekistan: Economy :: essays research papers fc

Overview:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Uzbekistan is a dry, landlocked country of which 11% consists of intensely cultivated, irrigated river valleys. More than 60% of its population lives in densely populated rural communities. Uzbekistan is now the world’s second largest cotton exporter, a large producer of gold and oil, and a regionally significant producer of chemicals and machinery. The IMF suspended Uzbekistan’s $185 million standby arrangement in late 1996 because of government steps to the negative external conditions generated by the Asian and Russian financial export and currency controls within its already largely closed economy. Economic policies that have repelled foreign investment are a major factor in the economy’s stagnation. A growing debt burden, persistent inflation, and a poor business climate led to disappointing growth in 2001. However, in December 2001 the government voiced a renewed interest in economic reform, seeking advice from the IMF and other financia l institutions (World 7). After independence, Uzbekistan tried to support inefficient state enterprises and shield consumers from the shocks of rapid economic reform. These policies eventually led to severe inflation and an economic crisis. Reforms brought inflation down to manageable levels and small businesses began to grow. Larger institutions are seeking joint ventures with international corporations. However, currency and trade restrictions remain too tight to encourage significant foreign investment. Falling global gold, copper, and cotton prices also hurt the economy. A privatization program is slowly being implemented with international support. Privatization is necessary to raise hard currency and promote economic development (Republic 4). GDP: purchasing power parity—$62 billion (2001 est.) GDP—per capita: purchasing power parity—$2,500 (2001est.) GDP—composition by sector: agriculture: 33% industry: 24% services: 43% (2001 est.) Inflation rate (consumer prices): 23% (2001 est.) Labor force: 11.9 million (1998 est.) Labor force—by occupation: agriculture 44%, industry 20%, services 36% (1995) Unemployment rate: 10% plus another 20% underemployed (1999 est.) Budget: revenues: $4billion expenditures: $4.1 billion, including capital expenditures of $1.1 billion (1999 est.) Industries: textiles, food processing, machine building, metallurgy, natural gas, and chemicals Industrial production growth rate: 3.5% (2000) Electricity—production: 40.075 billion kWh (2000) Electricity—production by source: fossil fuel: 86.95% hydro: 13.05% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (2000) Electricity—consumption: 4189 billion kWh (2000) Electricity—exports: 4.1 billion kWh (2000) Electricity—imports: 5 billion kWh (2000) Agriculture—products: cotton, vegetables, fruits, grain; livestock Exports: $2.8 billion (2001 est.) Exports—commodities: cotton 41.5%, gold 9.6%, energy products 9.6%, mineral fertilizers, ferrous metals, textiles, food products, and automobiles (1998 est.) Exports—partners: Russia16.7%, Switzerland 8.3%, UK 7.2%Ukraine, Eastern Europe, Western Europe Imports: $4.1 billion (1998)

An analysis of Elizabeth Bishop’s “One Art”

The poem â€Å"One Art† by Elizabeth Bishop uses simple and elegant verse as a poetic device to help it achieve its purpose and to convey its theme. Bishop’s poem is about the way in which people feel about losing things within their lives and how this can affect them. Bishop’s argument, through her poem, is that in order for people to learn the art of losing, they must practice on smaller things and eventually losing other things will not be so hard on them. The poetic element that she uses with such success is the language choice she uses, and in particular the rhythm of the poem, which makes it easy to read.The theme of the poem, the idea of mastering the art of losing, is expressed through the use of simple language, the author’s use of her own personal losses to bring the theme to the forefront, and enhanced by the rhythm of the poem’s words. Bishop’s poem is able to take an idea, that of loss, and successfully relay its theme and achiev e its purpose by directing it toward a wide audience of women who must deal with loss. Her audience is an important influence in how Bishop wrote the poem.â€Å"One Art† by Elizabeth Bishop is a poem that does not use symbolism and strange descriptions to create the theme of the piece, and the result is a poem that deals with loss: â€Å"The art of losing isn’t hard to master,/ so many things seem filled with their intent,/to be lost that their loss is no disaster† (Bishop). Bishop’s use of language is unique in that it is modern and almost as if she is speaking it and her use of proper English and grammar comes across as well. The result of this is that the poem appears to be sound advice from a woman who has had many life experiences and can be trusted to share her wisdom with the rest of the world. She writes from her own experiences with lines like, â€Å"I lost my mother’s watch. And look! My last,/ or next to last, of three beloved houses we nt./ The art of losing isn’t hard to master† (Bishop).She is able to give the reader a sense of how much loss she has endured and by doing so, she is actually making it more realistic to the reader to believe the theme of her poem. Bishop is able to use simple words that almost anyone can understand to bring to light her ideas about loss. She does not use any fancy punctuation or grammar, nor does she try to hide the meaning within metaphors and similes. Bishop clearly writes a poem in her own voice so that she can get her point across to others like her, most especially women who have dealt with similar loss.The rhythm of the poem is a particular element of the poem that becomes especially important in a short poem of this nature because it helps the flow of the words. Each of the verses contains a rhythm to it, either by using words that rhyme at the end of every other line or simply choosing words that make up the stressed and unstressed syllables of the iambic meter (Sound and Rhythm). In the fifth verse, Bishop writes,†I lost two cities, lovely ones, And, vaster,/ Some realms I owned, two rivers, a continent/ I miss them, but it wasn’t a disaster† (Bishop). The writer uses the words vaster and disaster to create a rhythm that helps the poem flow, and she does the same with other word choices throughout the poem: master and disaster, fluster and master, last, or and master. This element is even more important to the success of the poem when it is read aloud by the reader because the way we speak translates into how effective the iambic meter and the flow of the poem truly is.Bishop’s poem gains it real effectiveness by being simply realistic. The author is a woman who uses her own experiences to reach out to her audience and bring them a poem with a theme that is important to many people, especially women. When she talks about losing a gold watch or forgetting names she is hitting on an important thing to many women: the idea of losing something that is sentimental to them, like their mother’s watch, or getting older and forgetting things or having problems with their memory. It’s important to remember that the writer’s own experiences and ideas become a part of the poem and that helps enhance its believability to the audience. She even opens herself up in the final verse, talking about losing someone she loves and losing the â€Å"joking voice, the gesture I love!† (Bishop).She opens herself up to the audience in a way that is raw and real, bringing to light issues about loss that all of us will at one time experience or endure, but in particular her intended audience becomes important to the effectiveness of the poem. The poetic device she uses, that of the simple language, becomes that which is most important in making the poem work for the audience. Anytime a poet is able to write a poem in a way that makes it sound, if spoken aloud, as if it is someone speaking t o you and giving you advice, it is obvious that the writer meant it to come across in such a way. It makes it easy for the reader to understand what the whole point of poetry is really, and that is the theme it is trying to convey and the purpose with which it was written.The theme of this poem is so important to understanding why the author uses the device that she does because throughout the poem, the simplicity that Bishop uses in her poetry helps to transcend the generational gap between the author and the reader. Bishop was an older lady with many life experiences to draw from when she wrote much of her poetry and for this reason, she is able to get away without using fancy words or poetic devices that do not make sense. She writes simply, in short words, in a type of dialogue that seems as if she is simply speaking it.The beauty of the poetry is that it like she is able to create her theme by sculpting it with terms and words that everyone can understand readily. Her point of view is that something as complex and yet simple as loss can be an art form and that by viewing it as such, we do not simply run away from loss when we experience it, we have to learn to embrace it and further learn from it so that in our lives we can cope with it with dignity as time goes by. Even the death of a loved one can be something that can be endured with grace and dignity.So why is it an art form to learn to deal with loss? Perhaps in the mind of Bishop it is something that needs to be embraced as a part of life just as one would embrace their gift at writing or any other type of art. When people are enduring pain and are going through problems in their lives, they must be able to move forward. This is Bishop’s theme. She is trying to teach us to look at loss in a completely different way than we had previously been looking at this type of pain. As a part of life it is something that we need to understand and it would only benefit us to learn how to understand it. B ishop’s beautiful verse and her use of poetic devices translate her own ideas into the purpose of the poem. In the end, she succeeds in using the poetic device of language and iambic meter to create a flowing style of poetry that is simple and yet elegant.Elizabeth Bishop uses the simple language and iambic meter to create a poem that easily achieves its purpose of helping enlighten the readers about how loss can affect someone and how it is an art to be able to deal with loss. By using the poetic devices she does, Bishop is able to create an atmosphere in the poem that lets it flow nicely and helps the poem to put across its theme. Without the style of writing that Bishop uses the poem would not be able to achieve its important purpose and the author would fail in her attempt to put across the moral that she wishes her audience to learn from her own experiences and what she has learned from them. â€Å"One Art† is a simple poem that achieves its purpose without the ai d of intricate and complex poetic devices, and in so doing is perfectly targeted to her audience and accomplishes her goal.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Works CitedBishop, Elizabeth. â€Å"One Art.† Poetry Translation Project. 26 Jan. 2007.â€Å"Sound and Rhythm.† English Literature. Fu Jen University. 26 Jan. 2007.

Coefficient of Friction

Coefficient of Friction Lab Abstract The resisted force that acted along the tangent of two surfaces that were in contact was called friction. Friction was opposed to motion, and it acted in the opposite direction, where the surface of the object slid against the surface of the other object. The two types of friction that exist were called static friction and kinetic friction. When two surfaces are at rest with each other, but a push is caused to convey one of the surfaces to slide over the other was called static friction.However, the friction that was used in the lab was kinetic friction. Kinetic friction occurred when two surface were moving with contact to each other. The coefficient of kinetic friction is a constant shown as ? k. The kinetic frictional force (fk) was given by the following equation: (fk= ? kN), where N represented the normal force, which was the force that each body exerts on the other body, and acts perpendicular to each surface. The way that friction force is calculated is by the followed calculation: Ff=? FN, where (? ) was the coefficient of friction and (FN) was the normal force.Now in order to pinpoint the force of friction, the coefficient of friction should be figured out first. Now the way that the coefficient of friction was retrieved, the tension force (FT) was divided by the weight (Fg). An inclined plane that has an angle of ? was adjusted as shown in the following diagram: 2 If the block was placed on the plane, and the angle was slowly increased, the block would have began to slip at some angle. Now the normal force (N) acted perpendicularly to the plane, and a component of the weight of the block, acted in the opposite direction.Though when the angle is increased, the more force it took for the block to slide against another surface. So as the angle was increased, the friction cultivates, but when the angles decreased, so did the friction. 1 Now some of the factors that can affect friction are the body surfaces. For the fri ction depends on the smoothness of the surface where the objects have touched. Now with the smoothness only to a degree has made friction decrease. Friction never depended on the amount of surface that there was given, but it does depend on the magnitude of forces holding the bodies. 1Methods Inclined plane was placed at a zero angle position so the pulley protrudes over the table edge Mass of the wooden block was determined to the nearest tenth of a gram. String was attached to the wooden block, over the pulley and to the weight of the hanger. Orientation of the string was adjusted so that it was parallel to the plane. The planes have differed in their smoothness. Surface must clean and dry. Masses were added to the hanger until the wooden block moved at constant velocity after it was tapped lightly. The total weight (FT) was recorded in the table for data. The result of the weight hangers and the masses on the hangers was total force pulling. All weights are in the proper units (N ewtons)). By have added different masses on top of the wooden block (Fg), step 4 was repeated for several different total weights. Plane must be inclined at some angle between five and twenty degrees. Step 4 was repeated. Total weight was recorded. This was the tension (FT) at angle ?. Investigation was continued by an additional experiment that was planned, which compared how the angle affected the coefficient of friction.(An extra table must be included on this data. Data Analysis OFg(block)=FNFT(force of g on masses)=N ? 0328g=3. 2144N1. 4N. 44 0351. 8g=3. 44764N1. 4N. 41 0540. 9g=5. 3N1. 5N. 28 0573. 8g=5. 6N1. 7N. 30 0614g=6. 0N1. 9N. 32 0611. 4g=6. 5N1. 9N. 29 5 20 degreesF_gF_NActualTheoreticalAverage 153283. 2N2. 1N1. 9N0. 34 10368. 63. 6N1. 6N1. 8N0. 34 Sample Calculations: Sample calculation for Force in Newtons for Fg: 328(0. 001)(9. 8)=3. 2N Sample calculation for  µ: (FT/Fg)=1. 4/3. 2=. 44 Percent errors: Percent error for 15? :(|1. 9-2. 1|)/1. 9 x 100=10. 5% Percent error for 10? :(|1. 8-1. 6|)/1. 8 X 100=11. % Discussion The computed theoretical value of FT was slightly off for both 10 &15 degrees. The resulted percent error for 10? was just slightly over 11% and for 15? it was a bit over 10%. The outcomes could have been different due to the fact of friction, which could have not been calculated correctly when the block had faultless constant velocity, however, the values were nearly related. Now the relationships between the graphs shown above seems to prove that the variables which are indicated seem to be directly proportional to each other and the graphs, â€Å"†Force vs.Coefficient of Friction† & â€Å"Force of Block vs. Force of Tension are very similar. † It seems to be that the block was conveying at a constant speed in order to have given calculated the friction precisely. Now if the block were not to be moving with constant velocity then friction wouldn’t be steady, and if it wasn’t then there was n ot an precise calculation for the coefficient of friction. Now not having a smooth surface can cause an error, which causes the block to decrease and speed up. Now in order to repair this error, there must be a real smoothed surface where the experiment will be performed.The string sticking on to the pulley can be know as another error because it could cause the movement of the block not to be smooth as it would be predicted in this experiment. The solution of this error would be to put something on the string, so that it may slide efficiently. Conclusion The conclusion of this experiment seems that everything seems to be similar and in order. The percent errors that was given for 10? was 11. 1% and the percent error for 15? was 10. 5%, meaning that the theoretical value and actual value for the tension were nearly the same. Now the average value for the coefficient of friction ( µ) was 0. 34.

Molecular Mass Calculations

Molecular Mass Calculations The molecular mass of a molecule is the total mass of all the atoms making up the molecule. This example problem illustrates how to find the molecular mass of a compound or molecule. Molecular Mass Problem Find the molecular mass of table sugar (sucrose), which has a molecular formula C12H22O11. Solution To find the molecular mass, add the atomic masses of all of the atoms in the molecule. Find the atomic mass for each element by using the mass given in the Periodic Table.  Multiply the subscript (number of atoms) times the atomic mass of that element and add the masses of all of the elements in the molecule to get the molecular mass. For example, multiple the subscript 12 times the atomic mass of carbon (C). It helps to know the symbols for the elements  if you dont know them already. If you round off the atomic masses to four significant figures, you get: molecular mass C12H22O11 12(mass of C) 22(mass of H) 11(mass of O)molecular mass C12H22O11 12(12.01) 22(1.008) 11(16.00)molecular mass C12H22O11 342.30 Answer 342.30 Note that a sugar molecule is about 19 times heavier than a water molecule! When performing the calculation, watch your significant figures. Its common to work a problem correctly, yet get the wrong answer because its not reported using the correct number of digits. Close counts in real life, but its not helpful if youre working chemistry problems for a class. For more practice, download or print these worksheets: Formula or Molar Mass Worksheet (pdf)Formula or Molar  Mass Worksheet Answers (pdf) Note About Molecular Mass and Isotopes The molecular mass calculations made using the atomic masses on the periodic table apply for general calculations, but arent accurate when known isotopes of atoms are present in a compound. This is because the periodic table lists values that are a weighted average of the mass of all natural isotopes of each element. If you are performing calculations using a molecule that contains a specific isotope, use its mass value. This will be the sum of the masses of its protons and neutrons. For example, if all the hydrogen atoms in a molecule are replaced by deuterium, the mass for hydrogen would be 2.000, not 1.008. Problem Find the molecular mass of glucose, which has a molecular formula C6H12O6. Solution To find the molecular mass, add the atomic masses of all of the atoms in the molecule. Find the atomic mass for each element by using the mass given in the  Periodic Table. Multiply the subscript (number of atoms) times the  atomic mass  of that element and add the masses of all of the elements in the molecule to get the molecular mass. If we round off the atomic masses to four significant figures, we get: molecular mass C6H12O6   6(12.01) 12(1.008) 6(16.00) 180.16 Answer 180.16 For more practice, download or print these worksheets: Formula or Molar Mass Worksheet (pdf)Formula or Molas Mass Worksheet Answers (pdf)

Advertising (Subliminal) Essays - Camel, Marketing, Free Essays

Advertising (Subliminal) Essays - Camel, Marketing, Free Essays Advertising (Subliminal) ENL 1 Modern advertising companies rely heavily on subliminal messaging to entice their target audiences. Advertisements are often crafted for the purpose of appealing to specific characteristics in the hopes of drawing the attention and appealing to the senses of prospective buyers. Tobacco companies have become notorious for the implementation of such techniques. The images portrayed in many of big tobaccos ads stimulate a variety of senses and emotions. One common tactic used by Camel cigarettes (a subsidiary of R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Co.) is to isolate and promote lifes pleasures, and American patriotism. A specific Camel ad found in Elle, a common, upscale womens magazine is a perfect example of such advertising. Pleasure To Burn is the slogan centered upon the advertisements page. Above the slogan, CAMEL is written, all letters in Camels trademark font. A beautiful orange sunset serves as a mesmerizing background to an attractive, young women relaxing and enjoying a cigarette on the back of a pristine classic car. The image is painted in the style of the early 50s pin-up doll image. Smoke lazily wafts up through the lettering from the cigarette positioned directly beneath the word Burn. The woman relaxes lazily, eyes closed, facing up towards the orange sunset. There is no question that she is blissfully enjoying her cigarette, and her surroundings. She is dressed in the uniform of a diner waitress, complete with hat, apron, and JANE stenciled upon her left breast patch. Rather than conjure the stereotypical images of young women on roller-skates rushing around busily serving patrons, the subject of this ad is very much relaxes, and very much alone. Rather than appear to be sexual, her short and tight uniform conveys a sense of sensuality as she reclines, comfortable, confident, and independent. The entire focus of the advertisement invites the viewer to partake in the clearly pleasurable experience of smoking a Camel cigarette, specifically to escape the bustling world around us. The sensual imagery further pushes the same lazy, comfortable, yet extremely pleasurable experience of smoking Camels. The ad clearly attempts to represent a truly American theme. The diner era reflected by the images is solely the historical product of the good ol US of A. The classic automobile, in mint condition, aquamarine coloring, and white hard-top set against the beautiful and unpolluted orange sky makes every effort to glorify the past, and to seemingly imply the universal and timeless appeal of Camel cigarettes. The red-haired waitress, in her classic uniform and white apron even sports a more classic American hairstyle, as well as proudly displaying JANE upon her breast patch. The name further seems to emphasize that Camels cigarettes are for everyone; every Jane could be like the waitress in the ad. Camels logo sporting the label underneath Since 1913 proundly invites thoughts of Camels longevity in America, truly solidifying its role as an American classic. The rebellious nature of the images is slightly more subtle but equally powerful in its impact. Upon close inspection, the waitress is wearing shiny new roller-blades rather than roller-skates. Her youthful figure also aids in the imagery of a somewhat rebellious and strong woman. As she smokes with such a sense of luxury and abandonment, one can notice her empty serving tray lying on the car beside her. In addition, she is still in uniform, all the way up to her pinstriped cap. One imagines that she is only on her break, or perhaps taking one without anyone noticing. The empty car implies that the vehicle is her own, and not that of a patron. She seems, despite her conformity in uniform and accoutrement, to be calling all the shots. The fact that not another single human being can be seen further implies that our female protagonist is in her own world, and needs no one. It is doubtful that this sense of singular independence would be lost among the subscribers of Elle magazine, most likely a strong female audience. The mixture of these images serves to provide a clean, packaged message with an almost aesthetic quality; Camel cigarettes are for the independent, hard-working woman who seeks pleasure and social freedom without necessitating any need or help from others. The ads appearance in the modern

Wk9 (22) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Wk9 (22) - Essay Example Lois has probably been raised with the idea of marianismo which would mean that she was taught to obey her husband, listen to his rules, be obedient and timid (Paniagua, p. 6). The strength of this approach would be that the therapist could help Lois understand the behaviors that she is exhibiting that trigger issues with her husband. If the husband will come to therapy, the therapist can also help him develop a different way of working with Lois and her mother. Using a Genogram may help her understand each persons place within the family. Another strength is that she has come to understand her own behavior so she may be motivated to work through this process. It would also probably work best if it is a brief therapy rather than something that lasts a long time. Limitations of this therapy may be that it concentrates on behavior rather than on getting to the bottom of what is going on within the family. It may be a good idea to combine it with other models. The attitude of her husban d may cause the therapy to be a weakness because to help this couple, both adults will have to work together. Another limitation is that family therapy does not look at the individual and how they are functioning within the unit (Corey, 2009, p. 440). Couples and family therapy focuses on the family and how they are functioning together. The main objective is to focus on the observable behavior within the family unit (Corey, 2001, p. 247). Families are able to train themselves to monitor reinforcements that come about because of the change in behavior that they create. It also suggests that members of a family actually influence each other by their behavior. Corey suggests that when one family member is acting out in some way, it creates a cognitive, behavioral or emotional reaction in the other members of the family (Corey, 2001, p. 248). When using cognitive behavior therapy in this

Criminal Law in Hong Kong Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Criminal Law in Hong Kong - Essay Example Secondly, duty to act arises from certain relationships, for example, parent/child, husband/wife and doctor/patient.2 Thirdly, duty to act when s/he is bound by contract to do so, they will be criminally liable if harm or injury arises from their omission even though the person harmed was not a party to the contract. We can support this with the case of Pittwood3; where D was contracted to open and close level-crossing gates to ensure people do not get run over by trains. His failure to do so caused the victim killed by a train. The legal principle of that case was said to be if a person under contract will be liable for the harmful consequences of his failure to perform his contractual obligations. The duty extends to those reasonably affected by the omission, not just the other party to the contract. What about situations which do not fall into the three categories I have mentioned above. The person at the scene has neither created the dangerous situation, nor there is a special re lationship between the two, and there is no contract bound on her/him to act. This can be illustrated in Stephen's Digest of the Criminal Law (fourth edition, 1887): A sees B drowning and is able to save him by holding out his hand. A abstains from doing so in order that B may be drowned, and B is drowned.4 The Criminal law's current position in Hong Kong is very unlikely to hold A liable for any criminal offence since the basic requirement of 'voluntary conduct' is not satisfied. But the main area that we are most interested in is whether the common law is too lenient on such people Good Samaritan Law has not yet existed in the Hong Kong's jurisdiction; someone who comes across another who is in distress might precluded from offering assistance for fear of having to endure a court proceeding. However, if that person does choose voluntarily to intervene to render assistance he will assume a duty of care towards the individual concerned.5 If gross negligence is found, s/he could be prosecuted criminally.6 Theoretically, the person who puts the victim in distress could also raise a defence of novus actus interveniens meaning the rescuer's negligent treatment has broken the chain of causation. But, practically, this plea is rarely successful against medical treatment as a matter of policy.7 I would assume someone who tries their best to save others in distress would be in the same position. In the United States and Canada (except Quebec), citizens are not obligated to rescue someone who is in distress, but if they choose to do so, the Good Samaritan Law protects rescuers from being blame.8 The Good Samaritan Law's existence is intended to reduce bystanders' hesitation to assist.9 However, Good Samaritan Laws in Quebec, as well as many other European countries such as Italy, Japan, France, Belgium, Andorra, and Spain require its citizen, at minimum to call the local emergency number, unless doing so would be harmful.10 In Germany, a citizen is obliged to provide first aid when necessary and is immune from prosecution if assistance given in good faith turns out to be harmful. Knowledge of first aid is a "must" before a citizen is given a driver's license. In conclusion, I feel that the common law is not too lenient on such people. Even if the law of Hong Kong compel its citizens to rescue whenever they see someone in distress, would this practically be effective as such Take the Stephen's example as I have

The Value of a Vanilla Bond Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Value of a Vanilla Bond - Coursework Example Between the two companies it has been observed that Microsoft Corp. has the highest credit rating in the country. Due to the volatility of Aon’s operations and lower credit ratings, interest rates are higher, which makes the investment in Microsoft Corp. safer than that in Aon Corp, from an investor’s point of view. The Value of a Vanilla Bond A vanilla bond is a bond that has no underlying features, a fixed rate is implied and the bond is redeemable in full on maturity. In this paper, the vanilla bonds of two companies will be focused on to determine why the price of one company’s bonds differs from the price of the bond of the other company. The companies that are being focused for this paper are Microsoft Corp. and Aon Corp. According to the financial results reported by Microsoft Corp and Aon Corp. the companies had a total of $11.9 billion and $2.9 billion outstanding in debt. This debt component comprised of different loan notes, each with a varying range o f maturity dates, out of them only the loan notes that fulfill the criteria of vanilla bonds will be considered for this paper. To calculate the present value of these bonds, each lone note will have to be dealt with separately. The list of the amount of these loans, their coupon rates, price and their maturity dates is mentioned below, and on its basis the present value of each note will be calculated. ... October 2020 1,000 3.000% 105.7 941.85 2.27 February 2021 500 4.000% --- 459.79 --- June 2039 750 5.200% 122.0 612.653 3.88 October 2040 1,000 4.500% 113.6 835.607 3.73 February 2041 1,000 5.300% --- 805.150 --- TOTAL 10,750 10,043.51 AON CORP: Maturity Date Face Value ($ Millions) Standard Coupon Rate Price Present value ($ Million) yield to maturity September 2015 600 3.50% 105.0 589.609 2.07 September 2020 600 5.00% 112.1 570.808 3.37 September 2040 300 6.25% 124.8 248.854 4.67 TOTAL 1,500 1,409.271 As it can be seen, the bonds held by Aon Corp are generating higher yield to maturity than the bonds held by Microsoft Corp. Even though the time till maturity of the two companies is same for some bonds, still Aon Corp is charged with a higher rate of interest than Microsoft Corp. For the bonds that will mature till the years 2015, 2020 and 2040, the respective yields to maturity for Microsoft and Aon Corp. are 0.64, 2.27 & 3.73 and 2.07, 3.37 & 4.67 respectively. Thus it is obvious t hat the bonds issued to Aon Corp are receiving a better price than that of Microsoft Corp. According to Standard and Poor’s Rating Services and Moody’s Investor Service Inc. the Microsoft Corporate credit rating is AAA and Aaa respectively, whereas that of Aon Corp is BBB+ with a stable outlook and Baa2 with a negative outlook respectively. The increase in Microsoft’s credit ratings ensures lower borrowing costs and easy access to financial options for the company. Microsoft was assigned top rating right after the company made public a $ 2 billion commercial paper program and according to S&P only five U.S non-financial companies hold AAA rating according to their standards (Linnane, 2008). The commercial paper of Microsoft Corp is rated A-1+ by Standard & Poor and P-1 by moody’s.

Conference Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Conference Report - Essay Example Despite this, it is clear that we require having efficient measures for teacher development to ensure attainable of positive results of well-prepared teachers for the new information age. Teachers in TC help in asynchronous online discussions. This kind of discussion has been perceived as an efficient way for learners to participate in high quality discussion and intrinsic cognitive collaboration. This is because asynchronous online discussion gives learners enough time to reflect on their friend’s findings and contribution and reason about their own contributions before sending them off to their friends. Mediators or teachers also provide cultural, individual, institutional, technical, and linguistic knowledge to students. In addition, they help in technical promotion of professional capital and collegial development across learning institutions. The teacher arranges for learning materials and makes them accessible by compute. In addition, the teacher must motivate and direct each student, through on-going interaction or socialization and a sense of social presence in the classroom will make learners have a desire to learn. While online education permits students from around the globe to engage or participate in online discussion and permits teachers to work from any place in the world with Internet connectivity. This in turn increases the teacher effort per student, which fosters effective learning Telecollaborative learning has incorporated the Virtual mobility and the VMCOLAB project, which helps in facilitating international collaborative learning and experiences in a context of learning and teaching. The emotional and psychological perspective in TC helps in understanding how students perceive other cultures. In turn, a face-to-face meeting is organized by institutions in order to evaluate how far the students have comprehended other cultures. However, it becomes difficult for some students to trust in other students from

Financial modelling Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Financial modelling - Assignment Example This diversification was given a priority in the study and thus the tests were carried out on 10 different stocks. The study was very important in that it would assist economists and even future ones to understand the magnitudes and signs such as the relationship of beta to the prevailing market returns. With the understanding, they would be able to balance them and with this, the market force would be at a balance. The Australian Stock Exchange (ASX) was very influential in that it provided us with the required resources for the study. In the review of the previous literature in the provided topic, the Capital Assets Pricing and Markets model it was identified that the relationship between the beta and the average return is minimal that what is provided. This is opposed to the major notion that the relationship between the beta and the expected return is explained by the difference in the beta (Pahl, 2009, 27). It was also identified that when carrying out the calculations of the expected returns for small or rather low business markets, the Capital Assets and Pricing Model may not be the best method to use. With regard to the previous studies carried out in the topic, our hypothesis and results are superficial. This is due to the fact that there has been the inclusion of the Fama and French’s three factor model. When this model is put alongside the Capital Assets Pricing Model, it tends to show the benefits and the limitations of the model. The CAPM model has it that a linear relationship is provided between the lone assets and the accompanying risk. This is the major problem associated with the model. The Three Factor Model has an upper hand in this case as the returns are distributed in two groups (Bringham, 2009, 47). There are those that major on the big stocks and there are those that major in small stocks measured using ratios. The model also adds two more factors that are not included in the CAPM.

Nonprofit Governance WA 3 Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Nonprofit Governance WA 3 - Coursework Example Carver forces not to use 360 degree evaluation of a CEO because it violates the good governance when it is applied to a CEO. The CEO must be evaluated with unknown criteria. The board should not confront a CEO in front of all the board members which most often does not work. Each individual board member should separately evaluate the CEO with full authority (Carver & Carver, 2009). The ad hoc members should not observe or experience the evaluation of a CEO because these are the special groups which are outsourced and are not part of an organization. In that case the assessment would not be accurate and there are chances that the assessment process would not according to company’s criteria. Lastly, the Board should not assign the task to the ‘special committee’ or the Chairman for the assessment of the CEO because unconsciously, the CEO would then work for whoever appointed him to handle the company’s matters. The board itself would be responsible for the evaluation of CEO (Carver & Carver, 2009). The points listed by Carver for the CEO evaluation has to be agreed because these points can either help a company in the appointment of a good CEO or it can make it worse for the company. The board should be able to adopt the concept of self inspection monitoring in which the company relates its own standards for evaluating the CEO with the general standard in other firms. This helps the company in mitigating the risks involved with their own CEO evaluation and in the end it can propose points related to the company’s own process related to the CEO evaluation. There is an agreement how Carver proposed those points which should be avoided in the case of a CEO in forming the special committee or hiring the outside professionals to deal with the case. There is a possibility that the CEO might perform the work that pleases the committee who

Conference Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Conference Report - Essay Example Despite this, it is clear that we require having efficient measures for teacher development to ensure attainable of positive results of well-prepared teachers for the new information age. Teachers in TC help in asynchronous online discussions. This kind of discussion has been perceived as an efficient way for learners to participate in high quality discussion and intrinsic cognitive collaboration. This is because asynchronous online discussion gives learners enough time to reflect on their friend’s findings and contribution and reason about their own contributions before sending them off to their friends. Mediators or teachers also provide cultural, individual, institutional, technical, and linguistic knowledge to students. In addition, they help in technical promotion of professional capital and collegial development across learning institutions. The teacher arranges for learning materials and makes them accessible by compute. In addition, the teacher must motivate and direct each student, through on-going interaction or socialization and a sense of social presence in the classroom will make learners have a desire to learn. While online education permits students from around the globe to engage or participate in online discussion and permits teachers to work from any place in the world with Internet connectivity. This in turn increases the teacher effort per student, which fosters effective learning Telecollaborative learning has incorporated the Virtual mobility and the VMCOLAB project, which helps in facilitating international collaborative learning and experiences in a context of learning and teaching. The emotional and psychological perspective in TC helps in understanding how students perceive other cultures. In turn, a face-to-face meeting is organized by institutions in order to evaluate how far the students have comprehended other cultures. However, it becomes difficult for some students to trust in other students from

Nonprofit Governance WA 3 Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Nonprofit Governance WA 3 - Coursework Example Carver forces not to use 360 degree evaluation of a CEO because it violates the good governance when it is applied to a CEO. The CEO must be evaluated with unknown criteria. The board should not confront a CEO in front of all the board members which most often does not work. Each individual board member should separately evaluate the CEO with full authority (Carver & Carver, 2009). The ad hoc members should not observe or experience the evaluation of a CEO because these are the special groups which are outsourced and are not part of an organization. In that case the assessment would not be accurate and there are chances that the assessment process would not according to company’s criteria. Lastly, the Board should not assign the task to the ‘special committee’ or the Chairman for the assessment of the CEO because unconsciously, the CEO would then work for whoever appointed him to handle the company’s matters. The board itself would be responsible for the evaluation of CEO (Carver & Carver, 2009). The points listed by Carver for the CEO evaluation has to be agreed because these points can either help a company in the appointment of a good CEO or it can make it worse for the company. The board should be able to adopt the concept of self inspection monitoring in which the company relates its own standards for evaluating the CEO with the general standard in other firms. This helps the company in mitigating the risks involved with their own CEO evaluation and in the end it can propose points related to the company’s own process related to the CEO evaluation. There is an agreement how Carver proposed those points which should be avoided in the case of a CEO in forming the special committee or hiring the outside professionals to deal with the case. There is a possibility that the CEO might perform the work that pleases the committee who

Future of Bioenergy Essay Example for Free

Future of Bioenergy Essay In moving towards the modern era, there are many things and aspects should be taken into account to guarantee that a country is in a stable condition and progress without investing too much money in the certain sectors. So, to ensure that the development of a country can run smoothly, the government needs to control the financial resources well and also they need to make sure the necessary resources provided to the public are adequate and meet the needs of the people in that country. One of the best ways to achieve the mission of creating a developing country in terms of economic development and environmentally friendly is by using the renewable energy systems where it can use to support the energy resources that cannot be renewed plus the amount of it, is getting reduced from time to time. By applying this good alternative method, it can save a million of money and leads the country to the Green Energy living way. There are large quantities of renewable energy resources that can be found in Ireland, but just part of these resources already been discovered and commercialized well in Ireland. To reduce the dependency on imported fuels, fossil fuels like oil, coal and natural gas and also reducing harmful greenhouse emission, sustainable alternative is recommended. â€Å"Renewable Energy,† 2012) As one of the easiest and best renewable energy to accommodate this strategy is by develop the Bioenergy as it can be a good resource to supply alternative energy and supply a significant proportion of the energy needs as well as provide a momentous proportion of energy needs, generate many public benefits for the country together with environmental enrichment, augmented variety of renewable alternatives and also regional economic development benefits. Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland or formally known as SEAI play a good role in this production. They do develop the renewable energy industry in Ireland by playing a leading role of transforming Ireland into a society based on sustainable energy structures, technologies and practices. (â€Å"About Us New,† 2012) Bio-Energy Bio-Energy is referring to the cellular material from living or dead organisms. It is an extensive resource and it can be divided into wastes and purpose grown material like so; I.  Waste streams including a small amount of forestry and related industries, recycled wood, agricultural residues and agrifood effluents, manures, the organic fraction of municipal solid waste, separated household waste and sewage slush. II. Purpose grown energy crops including short rotation forestry, Miscanthus grass, etc. (â€Å"Briefing Note on Biomass,†2002) The EU Directive on Sustainable Electricity from RES (where they do the promotion of electricity produced from renewable energy sources in the internal electricity market 2000/0116 (COD), 2001. defines biomass as including the biodegradable fraction of products, wastes and residues from agriculture (including vegetal and animal substances), forestry and related industries, as well as the biodegradable fraction of industrial and municipal waste. (â€Å"Briefing Note on Biomass,†2002) It is perhaps worth noting here, in terms of the cross scattered nature of biomass as noted above, that The European Council Directive on Landfill of Waste (1999) requires Member States to formulate a strategy in favor of reducing the amount of biodegradable waste going to landfill. Under the Directive, landfill gas will have to be collected from all landfills receiving biodegradable waste and it will use to produce energy or be burned. Irish targets outlined by the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) over a fifteen year time-scale include a 65% reduction in biodegradable wastes consigned to landfill, as well as an 80% reduction in methane emissions from landfill. Therefore, this directive points towards the increased utilization of landfill gas for energy in the near term while at the same time restricting its potential as a long term source of energy. Currently, there are few of the agencies who concern about the challenges that we face in our new era regarding to the reduction of non-renewable energy sources like coal, oil and natural gases. Lots of the strategic plan has already come out on upgrading the energy usage and also in consuming the renewable energy sources from the natural resources which are still available in our surroundings. By focusing more seriously in a few sources that have a great potential to cover up the non-renewable energy resource and also it has a better opportunity to become a great supplier in the renewable energy sources industry, Republic of Ireland come out with their own strategies. Plus, there are fewer of challenges that almost of the countries need to face it right now including Ireland. For example, they need to be struggling with the climate changes and the increasing of greenhouse gas emission which is one of the big issues among public, government of Ireland need to face with the rising of energy costs as they also facing with the falling competitiveness among the other countries because of the currency of the Euro is falling down. Other than that, they also depend more with the imported oil and other fossil fuels with the security of supply should be noted. From these things happens, it makes the life more complicated and tough. So, from here it leads the Ireland to move into the other step which is closer to making this country as one of the environmental safely places to live by developing the Bioenergy industry as one of the best alternative way to overcome those problems stated. As Ireland have a strong strategy and well arranged future planning to carry out the energy from a certain resources like agriculture wastes and recycled products, it can lead the country to achieve the best environment with a green environmental friendly. Based on the Bio-Energy Roadmap published by the Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland (SEAI), Bio-Energy will be one the fundamental and essential element that will contribute more to Ireland’s future energy requirements and needs together provide significant economic and environmental benefits. From the words of Chief Executive Officer of SEAI; Prof. J Owen Lewis, he wrote that ; Ireland already has an active Bioenergy sector, with increasing use in industry, transport and in our homes. This is just the beginning. Much of the energy and climate debate focuses on short term goals, as it should. However, energy is a long term issue involving infrastructure and investment decisions with far-reaching consequences. There is, I believe, growing understanding of the changes we are facing and of the need to start acting now. I also think many people realize that, far from being purely a risk or a challenge, this process of change is a huge opportunity for Ireland. An export-oriented high value sector will find plenty of markets seeking to solve the same energy issues we face here in Ireland. Ireland is well-placed to be a leader in Bioenergy, but we must act if we are to secure this position. (J. Owen Lewis, 2010) So from the statement stated, it proves that Bioenergy got a great potential to be developed and build up more seriously. The point of view is how can we get into it in achieving the mission and goal as it is one of the best ways in Ireland to support the non-renewable energy in this country. The government and people should start to think it more seriously because of the non-renewable resources is not increasing from time to time but it will decrease from the next becoming years. From the diagram below, it shows that how the graph of the total energy primary demand scenario in Ireland that keeps increasing from 2010 to 2050 and this data are based on the data collection from 2010, 2020 NREAP; 2050 SEAI Bioenergy Roadmap. Diagram 1 : The total of Bioenergy demand scenario for an 80% reduction in CO2 emission by 2050. (2010, 2020 NREAP; 2050 SEAI Bioenergy Roadmap) Table 1 : The percentage of Bioenergy demand according to the sector provided in Ireland. (2010, 2020 NREAP; 2050 SEAI Bioenergy Roadmap) Based on the chart and and also the table shown above, we can see that the high demand of the Bioenergy industry is giving a positive responds and data. The value of the demand keeps increasing from year to year till it achieve a first phase of 2020 and at 2050, it shows that the percentage of every sector is attaining more than 20% of demand. From the explanation taken in the Bioenergy Roadmap 2010 – 2050, the bioenergy demand to 2050 has been forecast using specialist in-house modelling, with the impact of technology development considered to determine the primary bioenergy demand. The main goal of the 2050 model is to indicate the challenge and the need for an action if we are attending to achieve the internationality discussed of 80% reduction in CO2 emissions to curb global warming. What is presented in the Bioenergy Roadmap is just one possible scenario of how we can approach this challenge, and the contribution of bioenergy (Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland (SEAI), 2010). There are few of key findings and conclusions that have been highlight in the planning of developing bioenergy industry in future, such as; I. Bioenergy have a good quality potential in being one of the best indigenously energy resources for the national country that can be use in providing necessity energy to the country until 2050 especially related with the few of sector like transportation, electricity generation and also heat. II. There are more than 3500ktoe of original resources that can be obtained for Bioenergy supply chain by 2050. III. Bioenergy is highly suitable for the inclusion of the national distribution energy network. IV. Bioenergy industry has a most excellent role in perpetuating rural area development and improvement of employment. V.  There will be more than 11 Mt of CO2 that can be reduced or abated every year. VI. Existing resources can be enhance rapidly through the policies and actions across energy, waste, forestry, agriculture and RDD. VII. Allocation of bioenergy can be maximized by giving full support and investing in research and innovation in developing the various of bioenergy technologies and processes. VIII. A complete established energy infrastructure will be minimized a cost of competitive bioenergy sector distribution and allocation. IX. Bioenergy industry will be supported in developing best practicing of management for energy purposes. X. Develop the existing systems of bioenergy that can maximize the utilization of available bio-mass. (Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland (SEAI), 2010) By referring to the key findings stated in the SEAI Bioenergy Roadmap 2010 – 2050, the aims and missions in making the Bioenergy industry as one of the best potential alternatives that can support the existing non-renewable energy resources can be fully achieve if we can see the high potential of Bioenergy in the future and give full cooperation and support to realize it in the upcoming few years. So, let give full effort and show our support in making the Bioenergy industry as one of the best alternative way to accommodate the existing resources that from day to day it keep decreasing. Best strategies should BE come out and take over this problems, so that it can be realize in future for our own community purposes.

Role of Metformin for Treatment of Type Ii Diabetes Mellitus

Role of Metformin for Treatment of Type Ii Diabetes Mellitus The role of metformin in the treatment of type II Diabetes Mellitus Introduction: Diabetes mellitus is a sever inherited or acquired disease which occurs when either pancreas does not produce enough insulin, which characterises type I diabetes and it is most commonly diagnosed in children, or the insulin that has been produced does not get used by the body effectively, type II diabetes and therefore patients will have abnormally high level of glucose. Type II diabetes was previously called non-insulin-dependent or adult-onset diabetes (World Health Organisation, WHO website). The latest estimate of the number of diabetics worldwide in 2001 by the World health Organisation (WHO) is 171 million and this figure is likely to be doubled by 2030 (WHO website). A recent study conducted in the UK using the General Practice Research Database (GPRD) illustrate that the mortality rate is twice as high for patients with diabetes type II than those without it (Mulnier et al, 2006). The prevalence of type II diabetes is increasing rapidly both in the UK and worldwide. It has increased by 54% (from 2.8% to 4.3%) and the incidence has increased by 63% over the past decade (Gonzalez, 2009). In most of the cases Type II diabetes is associated with another disorder, obesity, (Krentz et al, 2008). Hence such high increase in the incidence rate for type II diabetes could be due to the increased rate of obesity over past few years as the life style of the population is generally getting poorer and 20% of the population is now obese (UK Obesity Statistics). Understanding and treatment of diabetes has advanced throughout the twentieth century and since insulin has been discovered, many antidiabetic therapies and oral agents such as, Sulphonylureas and Biguanides have been developed to improve glycaemia. Sulphonylurea was the first oral therapy to be discovered for diabetes. It is insulin secretagogues and hence it combats the abnormally high level of blood glucose but it also causes hypoglycaemia and weight gain as it can prolong insulin secretion (Warrell et al, 2006). Biguanides is a class of drugs that are considered antihyperglycemic agents. Metformin is a primary member of this class and it has surpassed sulfonylureas as the most prescribed oral antidiabetic drug in the UK and most parts of the world (Filion, 2009). Metformin is now the most popular treatment for diabetes type II as a study carried out using The Health Improvement database from 1966 to 2005 in the UK shows that only a small number of patients were treated with insul in and its use did not change significantly over the time of study period, in 1966 Sulphonylurea was the most common drug and metformin was relatively less common but by 2005 the use of Sulphonylurea had decreased remarkably and there had been a parallel increase in the use of metformin as a therapy for diabetes (Gonzalez, 2009). In 2006 the American Diabetes Association recommended it as the first drug of choice for patients. In the 15th edition of the Model list of Essential Medicine by WHO, metformin is one of the only two antidebetic oral drug agents (the other is glibenclamide) stated there (WHO, 2007). The other members of biguanides drug class are phenformin and buformin however these two drugs are no longer used in many countries because it carries a very high risk of lactic acidosis. Historical development: In medieval times, French lilac or Goats rue known as Galega officinalis was used as a remedy for intense urination associated with the disease that is now known as diabetes mellitus and the active ingredient in the French lilac that had blood glucose lowering properties was discovered as galegine or isomyleneguanidine, but later on it was discovered that this ingredient was toxic in the plant that caused death of grazing animals (Witters, 2001). In 1918, guanidine was discovered to be blood glucose lowering agent but then it was also found that it is too toxic to be used as a therapy (Foye, 2007). Whilst guanidine itself and some of its other derivatives were considered to be too toxic to be used for diabetes mellitus treatment, the biguanides, two linked guanidine, proved to be safe and effective for the treatment of diabetes (Witters, 2001). In the 1920s, in a search for these guanidine-containing compounds with antidiabetic activities, phenformin, buformin and metformin were discovered. Although they were known to have glucose lowering properties it was not until 1957 when these biguanides were tried on man and introduced clinically in Europe (Gottlieb Auld, 1962, Reitman Schadt, 2007). For the first time in a medical literature by Ungar et al (1957, as cited by Oubre et al 1997) biguanides were described as an efficacious new class of oral drug for the treatment of diabetes. Phenformin which is similar to metformin in structure was very popular in 1960s but in early 1970s it was found to be associated with lactic acidosis and by 1976 clinical studies proved that the hazards of phenformin treatment outweighed its benefits and therefore, phenformin and all the products containing phenformin were withdrawn by the Ministry of Health and buformin was also withdrawn from many countries for the same reason (WHO, 2003). Howe ver, metformin was proved to be safer and did not have same risk of lactic acidosis if appropriately prescribed, and it took another twenty years after a safe and effective use in the Europe until United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved it for use in the United States (Reitman Schadt, 2007). Glucophage the trade name of metformin, formulated by a drug company called Bristol-Myers Squibb, was the first brand to be marketed in the United States (U.S. FDA). Metformin used to be only prescribed for diabetes but then studies published in European journal of clinical investigation 1998 proved that metformin can have a significant effect on reducing weight as well (Paolisso et al, 1998). Meformin has now been used for over 50 years and it has established to be first-line drug of choice for the treatment of diabetes type II, but to get its maximum effect in the anticipation to reduce insulin resistance, weight loss and also to contribute in the improvement of cardiovascular diseases,the American Diabetes Association and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes strongly recommend to use metformin along with lifestyle intervention (Papanas Maltezos, 2009). Mode of Action/ Physiological Effects: Metformin is an antidiabetic oral drug that belongs to a class of drugs called biguanides. It acts by lowering the amount of glucose that liver makes on its own in the body hence it has antihyperglycaemic effects. It was licensed as antihyperglycaemic medication in Europe in 1970s, at that time there was only little known about the mode of action and its physiological effects on body. Despite metformin being in use since 1950s, its cellular mechanism of action is not definite. It primarily acts by inhibiting gluconeogenesis in the liver and hence it reduces the hepatic glucose output; it has also been shown to enhance glucose uptake in the muscles and improve peripheral insulin sensitivity (Ronco et al, 2008). Insulin is a very powerful anabolic hormone and it is involved in the synthesis and storage of glucose, lipid, and amino acid/protein. When blood glucose level rises, insulin is produced by the beta cells of the pancreas. As described by Gropper et al (2008) in their book, it stimulates the uptake of glucose by muscle cells and adipocytes, it also inhibits the gluconeogenesis by the liver to bring about an overall decrease in plasma glucose level. Insulin binds to a specific receptor on the plasma membrane of muscle cells and adipocytes which initiates a cascade of second messenger system that stimulates the tubulovesicle-enclosed GLUT4 glucose transporters to be translocated to the plasma membrane. Insulin also activates the enzyme glycogen synthase and inhibits glycogen phosphorylase and together they help store glucose in the form of glycogen. Hence this way glucose is removed from the blood circulation and is brought to normal level (Gropper et al, 2008). The majority of individuals with type II diabetes are insulin resistant. They have plenty of insulin circulating but their body is not able to respond to it either by having defective or insufficient number of insulin receptors therefore, glucose cannot enter the cells resulting in increased level of plasma glucose. Pancreas continues to produce more insulin in an effort to lower the increased level of glucose and eventually when an individual can no longer produce enough insulin to compensate for the rise, type 2 diabetes develops (Kaufman, 2008). Figure 1shows an overview of antihyoerglycaemic effect of metformin in type II diabetes mellitus. Metformin has various metabolic effects on lowering the hyperglycaemia. It partially acts by improving insulin action and partially by non-directly insulin dependent effects (Krentz Bailey, 2005). Metformin suppresses the hepatic glucose output by decreasing gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis and fatty acid oxidation and this is the most evident principal blood glucose lowering mechanism and it does so by mainly increasing insulin sensitivity (Krentz Bailey, 2005). In the skeletal muscles metformin increases the insulin mediated glucose uptake and glycogen formation (glycogenesis), it also reduces the fatty acid oxidation. These changes in the muscle cells increase glucose transporters to move to the plasma membrane surface so that glucose can enter the cells (Krentz Bailey, 2005). Another way in which metformin lowers hyperglycaemia is via increasing the anaerobic metabolism of glucose which produces lactate as a by-product and this contributes in lowering the amount of glucose available to move to the serosal side from the lumen, lactate is taken to the liver via portal system (Bailey et al, 2008). Another way in which metformin works independent of insulin action to lower glucose is via increasing the splancchic glucose turn over (Krentz Bailey, 2005). The effect of metformin on skeletal muscles and adipose tissues in improving glucose utilisation in them appears to work through improved binding of insulin to its receptors on the plasma membranes of these cells and therefore, metformin seems to be ineffective without some residual functioning islet cells (Porte et al, 2002). Metformin has no direct effect on insulin secretion in contrast to other antidiabetic drugs such as sulfonylureas, therefore it does not cause hypoglycaemia rather in clinical practice it shows anti-hyperglycaemic actions (Porte et al, 2002). The level of glucose throughout the day changes, it is typically higher after eating and lower in the fasting state. The fasting plasma glucose concentration is measured by the HbA1c test, HbA1c is a glycosylates haemologlibin that is glucose attached with hamemoglobin so the higher the concentration of glucose the higher the level of HbA1c ( Medline Encyclopaedia, 2009). A fasting glucose level lower than 6mmol/l or 7% is normal in non-pregnant individuals and an elevated level shows that either the patient is diabetic or the patient has impaired fasting glucose/impaired glucose tolerance (Bupas health information factsheet, 2008; American diabetes association, 2009). It is important for type II diabetes patients to achieve normal or near-normal glycaemic control with their oral anti hyperglycaemic medications. There are numerous studies that show the effect of metformin decreasing the fasting plasma glucose level. Such as a study by Lozzo (2003), done on type II diabetes patients over 26 weeks with metformin increased the whole-body insulin sensitivity and that was likely to be determined by the reduction in HbA1c and body weight. A similar study done on patients with newly diagnosed Type II diabetes mellitus showed that adding metformin to insulin therapy effectively decreased the HbA1c level from 10.8 to 5.9% and 100% patients achieved an HbA1c less than 7% (Lingvay, 2007). Metformin has also been suggested to work by a biochemical pathway through activation of a protein kinase enzyme 5 adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK). Its activity is regulated by the depletion in ATP (Adenosin tri-phosphate) and raised level of AMP when energy demand increases, such as in a exercising muscle, thus it is a â€Å"metabolic stress-sensing enzyme† that regulates the energy demand and energy production balance by modulating various metabolic pathways that bring about glucose, protein and fatty acid metabolism homeostasis (Hawley Zierath, 2008). In order for metformin to be effective in the inhibition of the production of glucose, activation of AMPK is required (Zhou, 2001). Kim et al (2008) published a study in 2008 that further described the mechanism of metformin through the activation of AMPK. This study was done on hepatocytes and it showed that through AMPK-dependant pathway metformin increased the gene expression of small heterodimer pa rtner, (SHP), SHP protein represses the transcriptional activity of a number of nuclear reptors including hepatocyte nuclear factor, and that in turn inhibits the expression of the hepatic gluconeogenic genes PEPCK and Glc-6-pase, these are the two enzymes that perform a key role in the homeostatic regulation of blood glucose levels and inhibition of these enzyme gene expression lead to the hepatic glucose production in vivo. Metformin has advantageous effects on atherosclerosis by decreasing Low Density Lipoprotein levels by about 0.26 mmol/L (10 mg/dL), whereas other oral agents appear to have no obvious effects on LDL cholesterol levels (Bolen et al, 2007). Recent prospective and retrospective studies confirm this drug not only being safe for its glucose lowering effects but also indicate its potential anti-atherosclerotic and cardioprotective effects (Scarpello Howlett, 2008). In the UKPD (United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study) a randomised trial on obese and overweight patients with initial metformin monotherapy showed a significant reduction in myocardial infarction and diabetes related deaths, it showed 39% decrease in heart attacks and 36% decrease overall mortality rate; metformin was found to be more effective than any other medication with regards to the strokes and overall mortality rate in overweight patients (Krentz Bailey 2005). Kooy et al (2009) investigated whether metformin had sus tained beneficial effects on metabolic control and risk of cardiovascular disease. After a follow-up period of 4.3 years it was found that metformin added to insulin in type II diabetic patients improved body weight, glycaemic control and it reduced the risk of macravascular disease. A 2007 systematic review evaluating antidiabetic agents and outcomes in patients with both diabetes and heart failure showed that metformin is the only antidiabetic agent that is not associated with harm in patients with heart failure and diabetes. In this systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled studies, two of three studies showed association of metformin with reduced all cause mortality and no association with increased hospital admissions. (Eurich et al, 2007) Pharmacokinetics The chemical name of biguanide is  1-(Diaminomethylidene)guanidine (chemical  formula C2H7N5) and it includes compounds that  have biguanide structure. Figure 2 shows the  molecular structure of metformin that has  biguanide structure with two methyl groups  added on the amine group of the first carbon  atom therefore its chemical name being  1,1-dimethylbiguanide and chemical formula  C4H11N5 (Porte et al, 2002). Metformin is taken orally so it has to pass through the digestive system in order to get into the systemic circulation. It is absorbed from the small intestine and does not get metabolised, under fasting conditions the Bioavailability of metformin ranges between 40%-60% (Foye, 2007). From the gastrointestine it gets completely absorbed after 6 hours of oral administration and after absorption it is rapidly distributed and in the plasma it is completely undetectable after 24 hours; the plasma concentration of metformin reaches its peak value within three hours of its oral administration (Papanas maltedoz, 2009). Unlike other biguanides such as phenformin the binding of metformin to plasma protein is negligible and therefore it does not seem to interact with highly plasma protein bound drugs such as sulphonamides and is excreted unchanged (Foye, 2007). Metformin does not get metabolised by the liver and therefore is excreted in the urine from the body as unmetabolised drug through the active tubular excretion and about 30% of an oral dose is excreted through faeces that may be unabsorbed metformin and that retain in the gastrointestinal tract (Porte et al, 2002). It has plasma half life of about 2 to 5 hours in patients with normal renal function but and renal function impairments may lead to retention of metformin in the blood plasma (Foye, 2007). According to Diabetes UK the daily dosage of metformin should be started from 500mg and then gradually increased to a maximum of 2550mg per day but it is entirely individualistic that it depends on the health of individual to consider what dosage is required. Generic metformin is sold in the form of tablets. A slow or extended release preparation of metformin (Glucophage XR ®), introduced in 2004 can act over 24 hours, it has been designed to release metformin slowly over a longer period of time than standard metformin (acts over 8-12 hours) and so its half life is increased to four to eight hours. Timmins et al (2005), in their study on 16 volunteers with 1000mg standard metformin dose twice a day or 2000mg Glucophage XR ® once a day, found out that the pharmacokinetics parameters are similar in Glucophage XR ® to standard metformin, but Glucophage XR ® it is evident to report fewer gastrointestinal side effects than standard metformin so patients who cannot tolerate standard metformin can switch to Glucophage XR ® (Feher et al, 2007). Side effects and contradictions When prescribed appropriately the most common adverse side effects of metformin include a change in taste, nausea or vomiting, abdominal distension or gas, loss of appetite, diarrhea, skin rashes or urticaria, rare – Lactic acidosis (Warrell et al, 2006). These problems are usually mild and occur in the first few weeks for taking the medication but it may discourage the patient from taking the drug, starting the medication in low dosage and increasing it slowly help reduce these side effects (Warrell et al, 2006). In clinical trial done on a total of 286 subjects, 141 were given metformin and the rest were put on placebo. This trial found that 53.2% of subjects who were given Metformin reported diarrhea in comparison with 11.7% for those on placebo, and 25.5% subjects on metformin reported nausea/vomiting compared with 8.3% for those on placebo (Drug Facts and Comparisons, 2005). Compared with any other antidiabetic oral drug metformin is most associated with gastrointestinal distress (Bolen et al, 2007). Phenformin was withdrawn from its theraputical use because of its association with lactic acidosis. Metformin which is similar in structure to phenformin has also been associated with lactic acidosis; however the risk associated with metformin is ten times lower than phenformin (Warrell et al, 2006). A case control analysis on the study population of 50,048 type 2 diabetic subjects using the U.K – based General Practice Research Database found out that the rate of incidence of lactic acidosis per 100,000 person-years is 3.3 cases amongst metformin users (Bodmer et al. 2008). Lactic acid is a by-product of metabolism and it becomes toxic if it is not neutralised fast enough. Lactic acidosis associated with metformin is a very severe and potentially fatal condition that can be avoided easily if the drug is prescribed carefully (Fitzgerald et al, 2009). It arises by the mode of action of metformin, that is the inhibition of hepatic gluconeogensis- a process that consumes lactate, produced by glycolysis, continuously to produce glucose (Warrell et al, 2006). Adopted from Fitzgerald et al. BMJ 2009 In normal conditions during respiration glucose is broken down into two pyruvate molecules in the first step (glycolysis), in the presence of enough oxygen mitochondria oxidises the pyruvate into CO2 and H2O through Kreb cycle by the use of pyruvate dehydrogenase enzyme. But if there is not enough oxygen present, the mitochondria cannot oxidise all of pyruvate so this excess amount of pyruvate is converted into lactate by the lactate dehydrogenase and this lactate is then used in the process of gluconeogenses in the liver. (Fitzgerald et al, 2009; Nicks A, 2009) As shown in figure 3, at site A metformin decreases the activity of pyruvate dehydrogenase and the conversion of pyruvate into CO2 and H2O, therefore at site B it enhancing the anaerobic metabolism even in the presence of enough oxygen and resulting in the increased production of lactate and as metformin inhibits the process of gluconeogenses in the liver, the lactate is not used up and is built up to the toxic extent. Lactic acidosis is the built up of lactate level in the blood (usually >5 mMol/L). (Nicks A, 2009; Fitzgerald et al, 2009) As indicated in figure 3, lactate is excreted 70% by liver, 5% by kidneys therefore liver or renal dysfunctions lead to the retention of lactate and hence to a severe form of lactic acidoses even in the absence of metformin and because metformin is excreted by kidneys if kidneys do not function properly then metformin builds up and hence the severity of lactic acidosis is even greater (Misbin, 2004). The most common contraindications to the use of metformin in people with type II diabetes are renal and liver dysfunctions, congestive heart failure and advanced age, ≠¥ 80 years, and the mortality rate of lactic acidosis is close to 50% (McCormack et al, 2005). But although heart failure has long been known as a contraindication for metformin use a systemic review 2007 showed that metformin is the only anti-diabetic drug that is not associated with any harm in patients withheart failure Eurich et al, 2007). A Medline searched review on the evidence for the use of metformin in the presence of these contradictions concludes that metformin treatment alone does not result in lactic acidosis unless other contributing factors exist as well (Tahrani et al, 2007). However if ingested in toxic doses or in the presence of renal elimination impairment, lactic acidosis does occur (Fitzgerald et al, 2009). The renal function of patients using metfomin should be regularly monitored. It showed be withdrawn if there is any disturbance in the renal function found. Figure 4 shows the current recommendations on contraindications and guidelines for the withdrawal of metformin. Metformin dose should be reviewed if serum creatinine level is greater than 130  µmol/l and a cut-off serum creatinine level above which metformin should be stopped is 150 µmol/l (Fitzgerald et al, 2009). It should be withdrawn during suspected tissue hypoxia that is a condition in which body tissues are deprived of adequate oxygen so cells are forced to respire anaerobically. Patients aged greater than 80 years are at greater risk because they are more likely to have heart problems and kidney or hepatic dysfunctions and patients should be more careful about their alcohol intake while they are on metformin because alcohol can seriously harm liver and that can lead to lactic acidosis (Tahrani et al. BMJ 2007). Metfor min should be withdrawn before any radiographical procedures involving iodinated contrast and should remain discontinued until after three days as this contrast dye may temporarily impair kidney function and cause the retention of metformin indirectly leading to lactic acidosis (Thomsen andMorcos, 2003) â€Å"Review dose of metformin * If serum creatinine is >130  µmol/l or estimated glomerular filtration rate is Stop metformin * If serum creatinine is >150  µmol/l or estimated glomerular filtration rate is Withdraw metformin* * During periods of suspected tissue hypoxia (such as myocardial infarction, sepsis) * For three days after use of contrast medium that contains iodine * Two days before general anaesthesia *Reinstate when renal function stabilises Contraindications * Renal dysfunction * Congestive cardiac failure needing drug treatment * Hypersensitivity to metformin * Acute or chronic metabolic acidosis * Impaired hepatic function Precautions * Age >80 years until renal dysfunction ruled out * Acute myocardial infarction * Radiological studies involving iodinated contrast * Surgical procedures * Alcohol intake † Salpeter et al (2003), in a system review considered 194 studies published between 1, 1959, and March 31, 2002 that evaluated metformin mono therapy or in combination with other treatments for at least one month, in data from these 194 studies there were no fatal or nonfatal lactic acidosis cases found in 36,893 patient-years in the metformin group or in 30,109 patients-years in the nonmetformin or placebo group. It also did not find any difference in lactate levels in metformin therapy and placebo or other non-biguanide therapies. This systemic review concluded that there is no evidence to support association of metformin therapy with increased risk of lactic acidosis or increased lactate level compared with other antihyperglycemic treatments provided that the drugs are prescribed in a suitable dose and all the contraindications are taken into account. Another side effect to the use of metformin is that when it is used in long term it is associated with malabsorption of vitamin B12 (Ting et al, 2006). Combination with other antidiabetic drugs Metformin monotherapy works well with life style interventions in type II diabetic patients but when Type II Diabetes is not controlled with Metformin monotherapy adequately it is often combined with other antidiabetic drugs to maximise its effect. The combination of metformin with rosiglitazone as a single product is known as Avandame, itwas approved by the FDA in October 2002 for the treatment of diabetes and although it has not been appraised by the National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE) yet it is often prescribed to patients with type II diabetes who fail to control their glycaemia despite the maximum dose of metformin (Diabetes UK, 2009). The active constituent of Avandamet, metformin and rosiglitazone,have different mechanism of action complementing the action of each other. The tolerability profile of Avandamet is similar to that of metformin, it is more effective in terms of lowering the HbA1c level than metformin or rosiglitazone (Wellington, 2005). Pooled data from two double-blind studies that involved 550 patients randomised to be given metformin with rosiglitazone or placebo patients were divided into obese, overweight or non-overweight. Patients from all groups improved their level of HbA1c and fasting plasma glucose (FPG) to a clinically important extent but the greatest improvement was found in the obese group, these patients improved their glycaemic control, beta cell function and insulin sensitivity with the addition of rosiglitazone to metformin than those who received placebo/metformin (Jones et al, 2003). Metformin can be combined with glyburide which is a member of sulphonylureas and it acts by enhancing insulin release from the cell of pancrease. The combination of these two drugs is proves to be successful in improving the glycaemic control in patients with type II diabetes Studies, such as sixteen week multicenter, randomized, double-blind, 4-arm and parallel clinical trial study (Chien et al, 2007) that involved a total of 100 Chinese patients with type II diabetes and out of which 76 were randomly given metformin 500mg, glyburide 5mg, glyburide/metformin 2.5 mg/500 mg or glyburide/metformin 5.0mg/500mg. After 16 weeks, those who received a combination of both drugs had a greater decrease in both fasting plasma glucose and HbA1c compared with those who received either metformin or glyburide. Insulin therapy alone sometimes fails in patients for the treatment of type II diabetes so metformin can be added to improve the sensitivity of insulin and this combination of two drugs results in superior glycaemic control compared with metformin or insulin alone and it also minimizes the weight gain in insulin therapy ( Wulffele et al, 2002). Continued use of metformin after insulin introduction patients with type II diabetes not only reduce weight and improve glycaemic control but have beneficial effect on cardiovascular outcomes (Kooy, 2009). Addition of pioglitazone to metformin is another combination for the treatment of type II diabetes, this is shown in double-blind, placebo-controlled, clinical trial done by Kaku (2009), compared with metformin monotherapy patients who received pioglitazone plus metformin improved their HbA1C by mean 0.67% and they significantly improved their fasting glucose level and other important markers such as free fatty acids, adiponectin and HDL, that are linked with increased insulin resistance and cardiovascular risks. Metformin can also be combined with other antidiabetic oral agents as a triple therapy for diabetes type II. In a study which was supported by Bristol-Myers Squibb Pharmaceutical Research Institute, 365 patients who were given metformin/glyburide treatment prior to a 24-week double-blind treatment were either assigned to rosiglitazone or placebo while carrying on with metformin, 40% of those patients who received rosiglitazone in addition to metformin/glyburide were able to achieve final HbA1c less than 7.0% and this study concluded that combination of rosiglitazone to metformin/glyburide is â€Å"an effective therapeutic strategy† for those who are unable to control their glycaemia and this treatment is beneficial for lowering HbA1C and fasting plasma glucose levels (Dailey et al, 2004). Who should be treated? Metformin is a very effective antihyperglaecamic drug for patients with diabetes type II and the American Diabetes Association (2006) recommended it as the first drug of choice for patients. Metformin is a preferred treatment for obese diabetics. In most of the cases Type II diabetes is associated with another disorder, obesity (Krentz et al, 2008). Obesity increases the risk of developing type II diabetes and many antidiabetic drugs increase body weight whereas, metformin demonstrates a significant weight loss in type II diabetic patients, Golay (2007) in his review on summarising the effect of metformin on body weight confirms that metformin has been shown to induce weight loss in nondiabetic obese patients, although long term studies on these patients are very rare. Therefore patients with obesity and on the risk of developing diabetes type II should start on metformin. Metformin is also effective with regards to strokes in obese/overweight patients i.e. those on the risk of developing diabetes. UKPD showed a significant reduction in myocardial